The years between 1219 and 1227 saw the gradual resumption of royal power. It also saw a power struggle between Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester, and Hubert de Burgh the Justiciar. By January 1227 when Henry took control of the royal seal, that struggle at least seemed to be fully resolved in favour of Hubert.
Download 61 The Minority of Henry III
The triumvirate of Hubert de Burgh, Peter des Roches and Pandulf (the Papal Legate) were broadly:
Is a good example of the problem. He was a loyal supporter of Hubert de Burgh and the king. But he thought the king was best served by strong local servants such as himself. Also, until the king gained his majority, Falkes considered it would actually be wrong of him to hand royal castles over to other people - like Hubert.
By 1224, Falkes was as powerful as the king in his heartlands, as shown on the map. But at the siege of Bedford in 1224 he was finally brought to heel. He was exiled, his brother hanged.
By 1227 the crown had re-established control, and revenues had recovered to a degree - though still no where near those of King John's or the Capetian kings of France. Hubert had gained political ascendancy, and Peter des Roches had gone on pilgrimmage. So in January 1227, Henry took control of the royal seal - effectively singalling that he had gained his majority.
I found a copy of Livy hidden away on my father's bookshelf when I was a teenager, and started to read; it was gateway into this superb world of stories. The story of Rome is one of the great stories oworld history, and Livy is a great historian to take you through it. Th eone I've recommended here is Volume 3, which covers the war with Hannibal. If you want to read more about it, click on the image - it'll take you to the Audible website so you can find out more before you buy.
I can recommend Audible with all my heart. It’s wonderful having someone read to you, it takes the mind off pain, like cycling, or boredom, like ironing. There’s the price – Audible is so much more affordable than the audio CDs, there’s a massive the range – over 60,000 titles so something for everyone. And you can get a free audiobook when you sign up for a free trial, with absolutely no commitment. All I ask is that you click on image below to sign up for your free trial, so they know you heard about it from me.
A man was needed to guide England through a civil war and minority. So who do you think they picked? The answer was of course William the Marshal who was now a very old man by the standards of the time. The Earl of Chester was politely asked, given the size of his holdings, but there was no holding William. In the two and a half years left to him, William was able to throw Louis out of the England and establish Henry as the rightful king. But he left an awful lot more for his successors to do.
60 The Regency of William the Marshal
Download 60 The Regency of William the Marshal
The advantages in this civil seemed to lie all on one side - with the French prince, Louis, and his allies the Barons. After all, 97 holders of major baronies supported Louis, while just 38 were on Henry's side. And the Marshal's attempt to lure some away came initially to nothing. But appearances were deceiving; Henry had over 150 royal castles, supported by sheriffs and castellans who used the local area to support themselves. Reducing all these castles would take time and resources - in a way, it was bigger than the challenge William the Conqueror had faced. And John had done his cause a lot of good by dying; Henry was untouched by his reputation, and his advisors played on that.
The battle of Lincoln is the second most decisive battle fought on English soil - but unlike Hastings is almost completely unknown. William the Marshal's victory meant that England would be ruled by Plantagenets not Capetians. There's a good description of the battle in David Carpenter's 'The Minority of Henry IIIrd, a book now remarkably difficult to get hold of !
Marshal won becuase he concentrated his forces and achieved a local superiority of forces. But he had to work at it - Louis's forces retreated behind the walls of the town, continued to besiege the castle and prepared to wait for re-inforcements. The Marshal wasn't having any of that. He sent Falkes de Breaute to break into the castle. Then while Falkes sallied out, the Earl of Chester attacked the north gate. While everyone was busy and occupied, the Marshal himself burst through a formerly blocked gate and charged into the enemy, so hard that he penetrated 3 ranks deep. By the end of the battle, many leaders of the rebel forces were captured for ransom including Robert fitz Walter, the former leader of the Army of God.
The only man of substance to be killed was the Count of Perche, stabbed through the eyes of his visor - you can see him in Matthew Paris's titchy pic above. Everyone was very sorry about it. No doubt loads of oiks like thee and me also got killed, but no one thought of that as worth mentioning.
Louis was confined to London by the defeat. He had one more throw of the dice - his wife Blanche of Castile was coming with re-inforcements from France. Which is where we come to the naval battle of Sandwich. As the French fleet sailed towards the English coast. Hubert de Burgh led the English fleet out. At first it looked as though he was running away - but in fact he was simply getting the weather gauge. The defeat of the French fleet sealed the fate of the rebels and the French. At the Treaty of Lambeth Louis made sure that the rebels would get their land back, and took a bribe of 10,000 marks to leave. In Paris's picture on the right, you can see Eustace the Monk losiung his head.
William had massive problems to deal with - lack of money, a bunch of independent sheriffs and Castellans wandering around, no Justice system. He did not manage to solve these problems before he died and handed his mantle on to the triumvirate of Pandulf, Hubert de Burgh and Peter des Roches. But he did achieve two things; he restarted the Eyres of the Royal Justices. This was important becuase royal justice was a visible manifestation of royal authority, and also because it generated revenue. And secondly, his constant involvement of the Magnum Consilium, for Great Council, legitimised his regime and firmly embedded the principle of consultation.
William himself died at Caversham on May 14th 1219.
Bouvines wasn't the cause of the Baronial revolt, but it probably was John's last chance to avoid it. In 1215 at Runymede Magna Carta was signed. It's extremely unlikely that John ever intended to allow the treaty to survive - and his untimely death at Newark was the biggest single factor in Magna Carta's survival.
59 Magna Carta and the Death of a Tyrant
Download 59 Magna Carta and the Death of a Tyrant
When John arrived back from France in October 1214 he found England close to open revolt. The combination of John's capricious rule, his Justiciar's attempt to levy a tax and the defeat at Bouvines together made a volatile and inflammable mix. John was this time simply overwhelmed. It seems very unlikely that John had any intention of sticking by the Carter - for him it was probably just a way of slowing the barons down until he could get an army together.
The 60 clauses of Magna Carta don't have many grand or stirring words. But somehow it manages to be massively significant, and keystone in the development of the democratic state.
A lot has been written about Magna Carta, so I'm not going to repeat them here. But excitingly enough here you will find a complete text of the 1215 version of the charter. The Charter is replaced by a revised version in 1217, and then a final version in 1225 - but this is the original, the attempt at a peace treaty.
Download The Great Charter of Liberties of King John 1215
The Coronation Charter of Liberties of Henry I also had an enormous influence on Magna Carta. So for you real keenies, here is that charter for you to pour over.
Download Charter of liberties of Henry I
And finally, to take the keeness to the ultimate level, Magna Carta is so called not becuase it's particularly long, but becuase in 1217 the smaller Forest Charter was created to deal specifically with the bits of the original charter that dealt with the much hated royal forest. and so here is an annotated version of that as well. Your cup runneth over.
John did not negotiate in good faith, because frankly he had no good faith available. By September the two sides were again at war. John soon had the upper hand; he assembled his mercenaries from abroad in Kent, and took Dover castle. His loyal castellans held over 150 royal castles against the rebels. The rebels had no siege train and essentially got stuck in London.
Then in 1216, the Barons invited Louis, son of the king of France to help them. He landed with 1200 knights and for a moment it looked all over. The Earls of Surrey, Arundel and Salisbury abandoned John. But in fact John retained his freedom of action, and his castles held - hius problem was that he failed to deliver a knock out blow.
In October 1216, John arrived at Lynn on the north coast of Norfolk. There he caught dysentery. As he crossed the Wash to on his way to Lincoln, he famously lost some of his baggage in his hurry, though it was nothing like as much of a disaster as Roger of Wendover would have us believe.
He reached Newark where he died in the night of 18/19th October, after dictating his will. His body was taken to Worcester Cathedral by his mercenaries, where you can still see his effigy.
From 1213 to 1214, John seemed to have got his problems more under control, and had built an alliance that looked to be capable of taking on Philip. There was trouble in the background caused by the tyranny of his rule and relationship with his barons, but his reconciliation with the Papacy and his international alliance held it at bay. But his hopes died on the field of Bouvines.
Download 58 Tyranny and Defeat
In 1213 John was worried; he had discovered a plot led by Robert FitzWalter and Eustace de Vesci, and had to delay his attack on Wales tyo deal with it; there was a religious madman going around saying John would not live out the year, and the rumours were that the Pope was going to declare him deposed.
So he met the Papal legate. And not only did he agree to take Stephen Langton as the Archbishop of Canterbury, he agreed to pay back 100,000 marks to the church, and to pay homage to the Pope for his lands - so England was now a papal fief. He was also later to take the cross. All of this gave John the ethusiastic support both to allow him to build an anti-French coalition, and in the coming struggle against the barons.
John was truly incompetent where it really mattered - in managing his barons. All he wanted was to rule like his father and brother, but he was incapable of building trust with his barons. Here's brief list of why so many barons had grown to hate John's rule:
John had assembled powerful allies against Phillip Augustus - Ferrand of Flanders, Renaud of Boulogne, Otto IVth, the Holy Roman Emperor.
John invaded Poitou in south west France and did well - but in Anjou his Poitevin barons would go no further, and not attack the king of France; John was forced to retreat back to the coast.
Meanwhile on July 27th, Phillip Augustus with 15,000 men was facing the allied army in northern France at Bouvines. The allied army was in the order of 25,000 men, though the French were probably stronger in cavalry.
The traditional 3 battles of the allies were held by Renaud of Boulogne on the right, Otto in the centre, and Count Ferrand of Flanders on the allied left. Against them Philip unfurled the oriflamme, the symbol of the French king at war.
The battle started with a confused struggle of Cavalry, but on the allied left, the Flemings were defeated and put to flight, and Ferrand captured. In the centre the best infantry of Europe, the Brabanters, were pushing the French centre back. Philip counter attacked with his cavalry, only to be met by Otto and his cavalry, and in the melee Phillip himself was unhorsed. The situation was saved for France by the returning cavalry from the right wing; it was now Otto’s turn to be unhorsed, and he was barely able to escape with a few attendants to run back to Germany. The battle wasn’t over; Renaud of Boulogne organised a stand of 700 Pikemen, in the organisation that would cause the English so many problems at Bannockburn. From behind the group he and a group of knights made continuous cavalry charges, while the French cavalry were unable to break the screen of defending mercenaries. Eventually, 3,000 men at arms simply overwhelmed, and Renaud and the king’s bastard son William of Salisbury were captured
John signed a 5 year truce with Phillip, and in October 1214 returned to England to face rebellion and the road to Runnymede.
The Holy Roman Empire to the death of Barbarossa, the briefest of histories of Norway, Denmark and Spain, and the 4th Crusade. It's action packed.
56 The History of Medieval Europe Part 2
Download 56 The History of Medieval Europe Part 2
Hildebrand, or Gregory VIIth to use his Papal name, was a reformer and Pope between 1073 and 1085. He firmly believed that the church should be independent from the influence of the material world, and unlike other Popes before and after him he was not prepared to compromise. He believed that the Papacy should be free of the influence of the Emperor, and indeed superior.
Henry IVth meanwhile was the descendant of Otto the Great. He believed in a system based on what he saw as the ancient right of the Roman Emperor to appoint the Pope. The system of government he inherited depended on him being able to choose churchmen he could trust to help him govern. He was utterly convinced in his right to 'invest' bishops and churchmen with the symbols of their office.
At the same time Henry IVth had to struggle with opposition from within German, w hose Princes
fought to establish their independence and liberties within the rule of the Emperor. In the struggle's most dramatic moment, beset by rebels allied with Gregory, Henry camped outside Gregory's palace in Canossa, in the robes of a penitent and pleaded to be accepted back into the Pope's favour. Gregory was forced to accept, and by so doing betrayed the rebels, who were then crushed by Henry. The Emperor established his own anti-Pope and ejected Gregory from Rome, who dies in exile in Sicily, lamenting
I have loved justice and hated iniquity - and therefore I die in exile
Gregory thought he had lost - but in fact the long term victory was his. The Emperor's anti-pope was never accepted, and the idea of the Emperor's supremacy over the Pope lost. Despite the outward glory of Barbarossa's reign, in fact by the end of his reign the basis of the Emperor's power was sorely eroded. Frederick lost control of the northern Italian cities. he was forced himself to prostrate himself before Pope Alexander III. He held enormous power in Germany, but at the cost of a new deal with the German nobility that accepted that they were a closed, hereditary circle, with power over their own lands, while the Emperor remained elective. Under Emperors weaker than Barbarossa, the weakness of the Emperor's real power would be exposed.
Spain had been largely overrun by the Arabs by the 9th Century, leaving 3 small Christian states surviving in the north - Leon in the North West, Navarre in the north and Aragorn in the north east.
By 1210, and the map shows, Spain was once again largely Christian, though far from completely. Despite periodic setbacks as new Caliphates tried to re-establish the old Islamic dominance, such as the Almoravids and Almohads, disunity among the Arab states allowed the kingdom of Castille to lead the fight back. The fall of Toledo in 1085 and victory at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 would prove decisive. By 1252, the last Muslim kingdom of Granada was a vassal of Castille, and would finally cease to exist in 1492.
After the death of Emperor Manuel Comnenos it is hard to find a Byzantine Emperor of any great talent. But the event which tore the heart out of the Empire came not from the East and the Islam world, but from the Christian west.
The evil genius is Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice. Enrico uses the fee he is owed from transporting the Crusaders to force the crusade away from the objective of Egypt to first recapture the city of Zara. Then Alexius Angelos, a man with a claim to the throne of Byzantium, and persuades the Crusaders to help him gain the throne - for a fee of course. But once in place, he changes his mind about the fee - having looked first at the state of the Imperial treasury. As a result, the Crusaders attacked and took Constantinople, and submitted it to the traditional 3 day sack.
Here's a contemporary account which gives a flavour of the sacking:
How shall I begin to tell of the deeds wrought by these nefarious men ! Alas, the images, which ought to have been adored, were trodden under foot ! Alas, the relics of the holy martyrs were thrown into unclean places ! Then was seen what one shudders to hear, namely, the divine body and blood of Christ was spilled upon the ground or thrown about. They snatched the precious reliquaries, thrust into their bosoms the ornaments which these contained, and used the broken remnants for pans and drinking cups,-precursors of Antichrist, authors and heralds of his nefarious deeds which we momentarily expect. Manifestly, indeed, by that race then, just as formerly, Christ was robbed and insulted and His garments were divided by lot; only one thing was lacking, that His side, pierced by a spear, should pour rivers of divine blood on the ground.
Nor can the violation of the Great Church be listened to with equanimity. For the sacred altar, formed of all kinds of precious materials and admired by the whole world, was broken into bits and distributed among the soldiers, as was all the other sacred wealth of so great and infinite splendor.
When the sacred vases and utensils of unsurpassable art and grace and rare material, and the fine silver, wrought with gold, which encircled the screen of the tribunal and the ambo, of admirable workmanship, and the door and many other ornaments, were to be borne away as booty, mules and saddled horses were led to the very sanctuary of the temple. Some of these which were unable to keep their footing on the splendid and slippery pavement, were stabbed when they fell, so that the sacred pavement was polluted with blood and filth.
For Venice it was a triumph - they captured the right to the trade of the Empire. For Byzantium it was a disaster.
The Empire split into a small Latin Empire and several Greek Empires - as you can see from the map below. Although the Latin Empire lasts only 57 years, and is eventually reconquered, Byzantium never recovers its strength.
From Charles Martel and the battle of Tours in 732, through Charlemagne and Otto the Great, the first installment concentrates on France, Germany and Italy and takes us to the shores of Gregory VIIth.
55 The History of Medieval Europe Part 1
Download 55 The History of Medieval Europe Part 1
It is hotly debated as to whether or not Charles Martel's victory over the Muslim armies in central France was the occasion that caused the Muslim tide to recede. Probably it's not the cause but the event that marks it, but how ever you look at it the victory of probably 30,000 Franks over 75,000 previously unstoppable Muslim forces was hugely significant. Martel had prepared and trained his soldiers for this event, and his victory founded his dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty - which led to Charles the Great, Charlemagne.
Charlemagne's Empire was a conscious attempt to re-create the glories of the Roman Empire of the west. Charlemagne put as much effort into reviving learning and spreading Christianity as he did into territorial expansion. None the less his Empire was huge, as the map shows (thanks to EB...).
Charlemagne was crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo in 800. Charlemagne's view of this event was very much that his servant, the Pope, was adding his support to his kingship. Pope Leo was trying to establish that Emperors only became Emperors when the Pope said so. This is an argument that will run and run.
Charlemagne becomes one of the touchstones of medieval Europe - just as he referred back to the Roman Empire, so future kings would refer back to the glories of Charlemagne.
After Charlemagne, his empire splits into three (see the small inset box map in map above). France, under Charles the Bald and his descendants, fragments under the pressure of Viking raids and communication into a series of semi-independant states. The French king concentrates on the development of his own power within the Ile de France, and maintaining some lip service to their legal supremacy over the rest of the Western Franks. In the end, it's a strategy that pays handsome dividends under Phillip Augustus.
The Eastern Franks choose a different route. Otto the Great took up the mantle of Charlemagne, and fought to maintain a new Roman, and Holy Empire. He defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld in 955, and finally put an end to the chaos. He brought the warring leaders of the German 'Stem Duchies under royal control. He chose a unique way of ruling this still huge and disparate empire. The Ottonian system relied on the church to be partners in ruling his empire. Prince Bishops would not try to establish dynasties, for example, to break away from the Empire. For over 100 years, Otto's system works beautifully, and his Empire dominates Germany and much of Italy. But it relied on control of church appointments and control of the Popes. Local churchmen, by and large, were happy enough - the Pope was not.
After the defection of William des Roches the military situation was poor for John but not irretrievable. Unfortunately, John failed to provide the leadership needed. He distrusted his barons; he panicked and had no coherent strategy. When he killed Arthur, he pushed the self destruct button, and Normandy collapsed from with - the Barons no longer supported the descendants of William the Bastard.
Click and play: 53 Torn Apart - the loss of an Empire
Download 53 Torn Apart - the loss of an Empire
It is not possible to definitively prove that John killed Arthur. But a bit like Richard III and the Princes in the tower, his failure to produce Arthur at any stage seems incomprehensible unless he did. The story is that John killed him at Rouen in a fit of drunken rage as the war turned against him. It was disastrous for John's reputation.
Normany fell because John's barons no longer cared to support him. John panicked, and had no coherent strategy. He distrusted his barons, and in return they distrusted him. He put vicious mercenaries like Lupescar in control of whole regions, and surrounded himself with household knights - not powerful barons who could make a difference.
In 1203, John ran for it. It is probably true that he intended to gather support from the English Barons, but he left it to late. On 6th March, Chateau Gaillard surrendered. After a triumphant march through Western Normandy, Phillipo returned to Rouen and on 26th April he entered the Norman capital.
Eleanor of Aquitaine is one of the great names of the Middle Ages. Her life spanned almost all of the Angevin Empire, and her court at Poitiers became famous as the centre of courtly love. Much of her life was spent in conflict with her two husbands, but towards the end of her life she achieved the political influence she had earlier craved as the trusted supporter of her sons.
Download 52a Eleanor of Aquitaine
This episode is by Melisende of Outremer. You can find out more about women in history at Melisende's website womenofhistory.blogspot.com.
As a younger man, John had been given the nickname Lackland because unlike his brothers he didn't have his own appanage. At the Treaty of Le Goulet in May 1200 he acquired the name Softsword - people couldn't understand why he'd signed away Gisors, parts of Berry, £20,000 and bent his knee to Phillip. On the other hand, John probably felt he'd had a good deal. Then John caused fury with the Lusignan by stealing their bride, they appealed to Phillip and and Phillip declared John to be stripped of his lands. But at the start of the war, John gets off to a flyer.
Click and play podcast52 John Softsword
Download podcast 52 John Softsword
The main terms of the treaty were
It looked like a reasonable deal. In fact, it made it clear that the Angevins were subservient to the French king, which previously had just been a form of words. But John, from a commanding position in September 1199 was weaker in May 1200; his allies, the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne had left of crusade and John probably felt himself lucky.
In 1200 John rocked up at the castle of his troublesome vassal,
Aymer of
Angouleme. There he met the 12 year old Isabella of Angouleme, and was so smitten that he married her the same year at Westminster. Even in those days, marriage to a 12 year old was unusual - a betrothal would have been more normal - but the Count didn't seem to object.
Now there were perfectly good reasons for marrying the girl, quite apart from her charms. Angouleme was a powerful count, had always been a problem to the Angevins, and this brought them inside the tent. But unfortunately Isabella was already betrothed to Hugh le Brun, count of Lusignan.
John could have made it work - but he didn't. He sent sheriff's into their lands and goaded them. The Lusignans appealed to Paris for justice from John, and took up the sword. John tried to avoid giving them the justice they deserved and in the end, Phillip was able to wade in on the Lusignans' side. So in 1203 it was war again.
Phillip's plan in the war was not new - Athur to attack the centre of he empire along hte Loire valley, while Phillip distracted John in Normandy.
At first all went to plan; John's army was not ready, and Eleanor of Aquitaine was forced to flee ahead of Arthur's army, taking refuge in Mirebeau.
Hugh de Lusignan (Hugh le Brun) and Arthur beseiged Eleanor and were confident of capturing her in a few days.
John marched the 80 miles from Rouen to Mire beau in 2 days, picking up William des Roches and completely surprising Lusignan and Arthur at Mirebeau.
It was a complete victory. Arthur, the Lusignans and all their knights were captured and imprisoned. Here's John's letter home:
"Know that by the grace of God we are safe and well and God's mercy had worked wonderfully with us, for on Tuesday before the feast of St Peter ad Vincula, when we were on the road to Chinon, we heard that the lady our mother was closely besieged at Mirebeau, and we hurried there as fast as we could, arriving on the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. And there we captured Arthur, whom William de Briouze delivered to us, and Geoffrey de Lusignan, Hugh le Brun, Andrew de Chauvigni, the viscount of Chateleraut, Raymond Thouars, Savary de Mauleon, Hugh Bauge and all our other Poitevin enemies, and none escaped. Therefore God be paraised for our happy success"
If John had not managed to upset and lose the loyalty of William des Roches almost immediately, history could have been very different. But he did. Arthur was sent to Rouen instead of being in des Roches's custody, and William rebelled, taking maine and Anjou with him.
In 1199, Richard the Lion Heart died after being shot by a cook outside the castle of Chalus in the Limousin. The Empire was split between supporters of Arthur and supporters of John. Philip was for himself, with a bit for Arthur. That year was one of John's best years, where he showed that he could be effective.
Click and play podcast51 The Fouler Presence
Download Podcast 51 The Fouler Presence
The legend is that Richard went to Chalus in the Limousin because a treasure trove had been found, the local lord refused to hand it over, and Richard was going down there to get his hands on it. It's much more likely that in fact this was part of a wider campaign against the rebellious Count of Angouleme and Viscount of Limoges.
Whatever the reason, Richard was on the verge of takin the castle when he went for a wander round hte castle, without armour but with a shield carried by a man at arms. On the tower was a lone man with a crossbow, using a frying pan as a shield. He shot towards Richard who applauded the shor - and so ducked too late. He was hit between neck and shoulder. back in his tent, Richard couldn't pull the whole thing out so a surgeon was called, who made even more of a mess of it. 3 days later Richard was dead.
Public opinion was split - Arthur, the son of Geoffrey of Brittany or John, son of the old king? England and Normany declared for John; Maine Anjou and Touraine for Arthur. Aquitaine wasn't a problem - it belonged to Eleanor. John was decisive. He talked round the key nobleman of greater Anjou, William des Roches. His defection too all the wind out of Arthur's sails. John took the fealty of 15 counts - including the crucial allies, the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne. Phillip had attacked eastern Normandy and Evreux, but now realised he could make little headway - and agreed to a truce.
The war between Richard and Phillip went on from 1194-1198 in fits and starts ; usually there was no more than 3 months of fighting before a truce came along. But the general flow was steadily in Richard's favour when in 1198 they agreed to make peace. Meanwhile in England Hubert Walter ran an efficient administration that fed Richard with troops and arms.
Click and play 50 Defence of the Empire
Download 50 Defence of the Empire
There were two main theatres of war; Phillip concentretaed on Normandy and the Vexin, but also stirred up trouble on the Loire valley in Anjou, Maine and Tourraine.
In Normandy, from May 1194 Phillip slowly lost territory. In the Autimn of 1194 he was forced to retreat from Verneuil, and with John's defection back to his brother's side, he lost Evreux as well.
Then he lost the support of his recently won allies, the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and as a consequence the Border lords in the north east of Normandy came over to Richard as well.
In 1198, Richard suprised Phillip and his army near Gisors, and won a minor victory. He cried 'Dieu et mon Droit' as he attacked 'like a starving lion attacking his prey', the phrase that was to become the motto of the kings of England from Henry Vth's days. Poor old Phillip ran like a hare for the castle at Gisors, only to have the drawbridge break under them and end up in the drink.
Richard mauled Phillips at Freteval in 1194; and although again it can only count as a skirmish, it gave him a free hand in the south. When Richard's mercenary capatain Mercadier captured the Auverge in 1195, it was pretty clear that Richard had the upper hand.
In 1198 peace was finally discussed in earnest. In essence, Phillip was to give up pretty much everything he had won except for Gisors. The Truce was agreed by Christmas, and while the peace treaty was being drawn up, Richard went off to settle some scores at Chalus in the Limousin...
Back home Hubert Walter was one of the Middle Ages' most competent administrators. Justiciar for 5 years, he introduced reforms to the legal system, that probably led to the post of Justice of the Peace and Cornoer. More importantly from Richard's point of view he get the money and troops coming to feed Richard's war.
Was the Third Crusade a success or a failure? While it failed to achieve its objective, it was the most successful after the First Crusade. It rescued Outremer from an eradication that looked all too likely in 1190. The Crusade was controversial even at the time - in the eyes of most of Christendom it made Richard a hero - the victor of Acre and Arsuf. But to Philip's friends, Richard had failed, and betrayed Christendom to the Turk. To my mind it gave Outremer another century of life until the fall of Acre in 1291.
48 Richard and the Third Crusade
Download Podcast 48 Richard and the Third Crusade
This week recommendation is Jerusalem by Simon Sebag Montefiore. While really almost zip to do with the Third Crusade it's a fascinating book about a unique city with an extraordinary history. Available through all good books shops... including mine above !
And here are a couple of YouTube programs that are quite decent on the Third Crusade. Includes one by Terry Jones of Monty P fame. If it inspires, you can also buy the book and DVD...available of course through my bookshop above!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CiYNdexDwYw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMudvB7F8S8
It's a bit of a push to give Richard the credit for the fall of Acre - after all,
Conrad and Guy had been working on it for the best part of 18 months when he arrived. But Philip and Richard's men did transform the situation, and by 12th July 1190 the city had fallen. The whole event was marred by the massacre of 2,700 of the inhabitants outside the walls of Acre on 20th August. While there's no doubt that Richard ordered the massacre, it's equally clear that Saladin was playing for time in his negotiation, and had missed the deadline for delivery of half the agreed money by 11th August. Richard could not afford to be tied down an Acre. Richard raised the Royal Standard. We are not sure exactly what it looked like then, but from 1198 it was - Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or armed and langued Azure - as above.
The objective was to march down the coast and take the port of Jaffa. Throughout the march, Saladin's army harried the Crusaders, trying to get them to break ranks - allowing themselves to be isolated and destroyed piecemeal. But Richard's discipline held, and Saladin knew he had to commit his whole army to stop the march.
He did this at Arsuf. Time and again his mounted archers and skirmishers goaded the Crusader line, time and again richard refused the pleas to break ranks and commit a cavalry charge. Until eventually at mid afternoon, the Grand Master of the Hospitallers lost his patience and ordered the charge with cries of 'St George!'. Immediately Richard ordered a general charge, holding the English and Normans in reserve.
Saladin's army retreated in disarray; but Tariq al Din counter charged with 700 elite bodyguard, on to be met by the English and Normans. The day belonged to Richard, and 700 of the Muslim army were killed.
Richard left the Holy Land in October 1193. He had captured Acre, Jaffa, Ascalon (though the fortifications had to be destroyed) and Darum. His treaty with Saladin gave Christian pilgrims access to the holy places. But despite having got within 12 miles of Jerusalem he had failed to capture the city, and that had after all been the objective.
But he left behind a viable state that was able to defend itself, which had been on the point of collapse. The Third Crusade achieved more than any other except the First, and did this against a unified Muslim leader of enormous talent.
In addition of course, he left behind Cyprus, and uniquely important source of resources and support for Outremer, ruled by Guy of Lusignan.
By most standards the crusade was a success, and one where Richard had demonstrated both his military and diplomatic talent.
Richard set off from Outremer right at the end of the sailing season - October. He knew the Duke of Austria, the Holy Roman Emperor, Count of Toulouse and King of France were out to get him, so very sensibly tried to slip across their lands in disguise. Rubbish plan, predictable result. Meanwhile back in England John was making a bit for power, Phillip making his first attempt to bring down the Angevin Empire - and Robin Hood might have been hanging out in Sherwood Forest. Richard eventually arrived home at the start of 1194.
Download Podcast 49 Travel Chaos
This week recommendation is Medieval Lives by Alan Eira and Terry Jones (he of Monty Python fame. Terry brings that quirky approach to the lives of medieval people, but with an obvious enthusiasm. There are BBC DVD's of the related series on the website to boot.
Richard's scheme to travel across Europe under disguise sounds like the act of a madman, or of a king suffering from delusional levels of confidence. But in point of fact Richard had little choice, and lots of bad luck. He couldn't just sail straight to England - no one would sail on the Atlantic at that time of year. The Count of Toulouse had a reception party ready for him if he came back the way he went. So really his options were linited. And the odd shipwreck or two reduced any chances he might have had.
Once he'd been caught in a village outside Vienna, Leopold of Austria took him to Durnstein Castle. The legend of Blondel (Blondel de Nesle? Jean de Nesle?) is that Blondel toured round all the castles looking for Richard by singng a song only he and Richard knew. At last outside Durnstein, he heard Richard signing the second verse. For a flavour of the songs of Blondel, here's a handy YouTube link.
In point of fact there was no secret about where Richard was. Henry VIth, Holy Roman Emperor, was beside himself with joy, and soon too, Richard from Leopold. It's a remarkable situation - the most poerful King of Western Europe held to ransom. After a year, Richard was finally released for 100,000 marks, just possibly £2bn in today's money. Throughout the period, Richard was said to be calm and affable.
The second attempt is 1193-4 while Richard is in prison. John makes an agreement with Philip Augustus of France, and raises the standard of rebellion while Phillip attacks into Normandy. Phillip is quite successful, being joined by several barons from the north and East of Normandy, and taking the castle of Gisors. But John is a loser, with no English Barons of note joining him.
Richard comes back in March 1194. He immediately reduces the last of John's castles holding out against him - which is, you guessed it, Nottingham. John has feld to Normandy, and a council of the realm stripped him of all his land as a rebel. Richard focusses on preparing his army, and rebuilding Portsmout as his supply line ot France; and then in May sets sail for Normandy and war.
It is entirely possible that there was an equivalent of Robin Hood in the 1190's but we'll probably never know. All that we do know is that the legend has changed and evolved to mee the needs of different centuries, and in that regard all the stories are valid.
But for a good website with all the facts, go to Boldoutlaw.
And for my favourite bit of my favourtite Robin Hood movie, click on this link to Alan Rickman
For 50 or so years after the capture of Jerusalem, Outremer was a part of the political and military dance between Christian and Muslim states. Then in 1144, signs of Muslim unity begin to appear through Nur ed Din when Edessa falls, and by 1150 one of the states is wiped off the map. Outremer has passed its high point. But it's not until the 1170's that Saladin, as leader of unified empire that included Egypt and Syria, was able to really threaten the Christian states. In 1187, after the dramatic battle of Hattin, Jerusalem and most of Outremer falls and is left with just a few toe holds on the coast. in 1190, Saladin's army is looking to finish the job when Richard and Phillip arrive at Acre.
Download Podcast 47 The Fall of Jerusalem
If you want a good simple overview of all the Crusades, there's the Crusades site by Skip Knox at Boise State University.
See recommended books in the Bookshop. I'd recommend:
Steven Runciman 'The History of the First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem' which treads the perfect line between scholarship and a good story, or
Jonathan Riley Smith 'The Crusades: A History' which gives a brilliant modern and balanced overview.
There were 4 Crusader states of Outremer at their height. 3 of the states (the Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa and County of Tripoli) in theory owed allegiance to the King of Jerusalem. According to the Emperor in Constantinople the states owed allegiance to him.
Meanwhile in Cilicia, i.e. the southern edge of Asia Minor, the Armenians had established a kingdom that despite the best efforts of the Empire managed to create a significant level of independence.
Great fortresses such as Kerak and Montreal (pictured below) defended the frontiers of all the states.
Outremer's existence was made possible by the disunity of the Muslim states, and the strength of the Empire. Slowly these things began to change. In 1144 Zengi took the city of Eedessa, and by 1150 the whole county was no more. Nur ed Din arose as a leader that ruled both Syria and Egypt. His Nephew, was Salah ed Din, who spent many years consolidating his rule until he was ready to rub out the Christian states in a holy war.
Meanwhile, Manuel Comnenus was defeated at Myriocephalum in 1176, and the strength of the Empire was never to recover.
Despite Saladin's superiority in numbers, the capture of Jerusalem was not a foregone conclusion. At the battle of Montgisard in 1177 for example, Saladin's army was surprised and defeated by King Baldwin IV, and Saladin had many distractions from areas such as Mosul. But the crucial blow came at the Horns of Hattin.
in June 1187, Saladin's army besieged Tiberias on the sea of Galillee. According to Raymond of Tripoli, the Crusader army should stay safe at Acre, despite the fact that his wife was trapped at Tiberias. The heat would surely eventually force him to withdraw. But Reynald of Chatillon and Gerard de Ridefort (Grand Master of the Templars) persuaded the king, Guy of Lusignan to attack.
On 2nd July, the Crusader army arrived at Sephoria (Saforie on the map). There was water there and a strong position - once again Raymond tried to avoid disaster, arguing it would be madness to go further. But Guy was persuaded to attack.
Constant attack from Saladin's horse archers slowed the march. The wells at Turan were dry. By the afternoon of the 3rd July, the Crusader army had done no more that reach Hattin. The Templars begged for an end to the day's march, and when Guy agreed Raymond cried out that the kingdom was lost.
The army camped at Hattin, where two low hills were called the 'Horns of Hattin. They expected to find water - but again the wells were dry, and by the morning they were surrounded. In their desperation, discipline deserted the Christian army. Thirst drove the Christian footmen to surge towards the road that led to the sea of Galilee and water and they were cut to pieces. The knights retreated to a hill, where time and again they drove the Muslim army back until at last they were forced to surrender.
The defeat was catastrophic. Outremer had always suffered from a shortage of men, and now they had been killed or captured - there was no one left to defend the kingdom.
On 2nd October 1187 Balian of Ibelin was forced to surrender Jerusalem to Saladin. From there, Saladin swept through most of the kingdom and almost all of the great fortresses fell to him - Ascalon, Montreal, Kerak, Safed, Sidon, Beirut. The exception that saved the Kingdom was Tyre, which was held by the newly arrived Conrad of Montferrat.
By 1190, Outremer was reduced to a precarious series of toeholds and fortresses - Tyre, Beaufort, Krak des Chevalier, Antioch. Even the leadership was unclear, with Conrad of Montferrat and Guy of Lusignan each claiming the throne.
Remarkably, Guy and Conrad took the initiative, scraped together a force at besieged Acre in August 1189. At first, outnumbered, their position was precarious. But slowly they were joined by men from abroad, and when Richard arrived in June 1191 the siege was already 18 months old.
Richard set off from Sicily probably intending to go straight to the Holy Land. But a chance storm enforced a landing at Cyprus, where the locals were not friendly. Which meant that Richard ended up conquering the place in it's entirety, putting it's ruler Isaac Comnenus in chains of silver, and selling the island to the Templars.
46 Richard and the Road to Outremer
Download 46 Richard and the Road to Outremer
Well, bringing 25 ships full of soldiers to Messina was probably always going to cause problems - and so it proved, with a series of running battles with the locals. But Richard didn't want trouble on this occasion, so he managed to get things calmed down. He built a wooden castle called Mategriffon - which alloed him to be safe, but also allowed him to stockpile provisions for his army, so they didn't go stealing off the locals. So tempers were eased - though since Nategriffon meant 'Death to the Greeks' I doubt this was the basis for a new, loving relationship...
Richard had a few bits of housekeeping to sort out in Sicily when he arrived there in 1190:
Part of Richard's fleet got lost in a storm, and took refuge in Cyprus. The locals were not friendly; they imprisonned all who landed and took their possessions.
Richad was having none of that. He turned his part of the fleet around, landed with some knights and laid about him until Isaac and his army ran. In for a penny and so on, so Richard then proceeded to conquer all the coastal towns, with the locals deserting the unpopular Isaac in droves.
Isaac though wasn't fussed, becuase he had a plan. Richard was on his way to the Holy Land - so as long as he could sit things out safely somewhere he could just wait for Richard to leave. Cyprus is blessed with plenty of impregnable mountain castles...
But Isaac had figured without his daughter - she was captured in Kyrenia castle. Now Isaac might have been a vicious tyrant, but he qs a big softie when it came to his daughter, so he threw himself on Richard's mercy, and surrendered on condition that Richard didn't clap him in irons.
So Richard had a silver chain made for him. How Isaac laughed.
It's not clear if Richard evey planned to conquer Cyprus. But it's conquest was a significant part of the succes of the Third Crusade. It remained in Christian hands for 4 centuries, and be a vital source of support for Outremer. Initially Richard sold it to the Templars, but later sold it instead to the ousted King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan.
Richard and Berengaria were married in May 1191 in the chapel of St George in Limassol, and then she was crowned by the Bishop of Evreux. There's no evidence of any great romance here - and of course no children. But equally there's no evidence to suggest that the couple didn't get on. Berengaria is quoted as being the only queen of England never to set foot in England, since she set up shop in Le Mans. I mean why would she visit, it's wet there afterall. It may be that she did visit England after Richard's death... but that measn she still qualifies. Good pub quiz question.
Rob, or Lord Marcovan, is a coin collector from, well, somewhere out west depending on where you start. The good Lord has suggested a giveaway for the History of England - very generous of him it is too.
So the rules are:
You have to post a comment on this post - it could be anything: a comment, a suggestion to improve the podcast (don't speak so fast for example), or a subject you'd like me to cover or a question.
What could be simpler? Thanks Rob.
Here are the coins that Rob is offering to you all:
And finally here's Rob's original post, so you know the background !
Hello, David and fellow listeners! This is Rob in the USA. Happy Holidays and greetings from the Golden Isles of Georgia! I haven't listened to this episode yet- I'm still back a ways and haven't caught up. I'm still a relatively new listener. Anyway, David, you'd earlier put out a call for some listener podcast contributions and such, but I believe it fell flat. I for one don't have the necessary technical skill to contribute in that way. But here's what I propose to do... I'm a coin guy, you see (longtime collector and part time dealer). And I love old English coins. So I thought I'd pledge a giveaway of some fun old coins. Nothing super valuable, mind you- I haven't got the money to offer up a nice gold sovereign or Anglo Saxon penny, though I do periodically get inexpensive medieval coins. What I propose is this. Just for fun, I hereby pledge to donate a small group of five old coins, as a promotional giveaway to some lucky History Of England podcast listener. If David would see fit to make a short announcement in a future episode, and challenge all listeners to "stand and deliver"- in other words, stand up and be counted by posting a comment- then I'll take a random number generator and select a winner from amongst those who commented. (In other words, the digital equivalent of drawing a name from a hat). I can then send the coins to the winner, once I've been provided a shipping address. (Alternately, I could ship them to David and he could mail them from the UK, but I'm perfectly willing to save him the hassle and ship direct from this side of the pond.) I enjoy podcasts like this immensely- they make my dull overnight shifts more tolerable. So what say ye all? Want to win some coins? Just add a comment or do whatever it is David decides to announce. I stand by, ready to donate them. Don't forget his PayPal donation link, too. I've been too cheap to use it thus far, so let this be my first modest contribution. If the response is good, then hey- who knows- maybe I'll do it again later, with an even older and better coin or two! DISCLAIMER: David had no prior notice of me offering this. I'm going under my own initiative, here. If he decides for whatever reason that such a giveaway would cause problems for him, then it's off. But otherwise, it could be fun, eh?
Richard came into the lands of his father and was crowned at Westminster in 1189. For the next 6 months he was packing his bags, cleaning the fridge and getting ready to go. He sets up his administration, makes sure his borders are safe and sets off for Sicily. So was Richard a feckless warrior who had no interest in administration ? We talk about this and also about the Jewish communities in England in the 11th and 12th Centuries. AND Don't forget to go to www.thehistoryofengland.com post for the Great British Coin Giveaway
Download 45 Richard I - Packing up
Yes, yes he did. But he did nothing exceptional, nothing anyone had done before. Take one example; he fires 22 of the 27 sheriffs of Henry's reign, and makes anyone who wants to replace them pay for the job. This sounds bad; but it's all perfectly normal, this is what has happened for ages. And the men who Richard appointed have all been shown to be experienced administrations, not chinless rich fly by nights. So yes he gathered as much money as he could - but then he was raising an army for the greater good of Christendom. But no, he didn't just wander off without making sure the fridge was clean before he left. He left trusted administrators in place.
Richard makes arrangements to deal with all his external enemies:
Download The Quitclaim of Canterbury 1190
There were probably no more than 5,000 Jewish living in England at the time of Richard II in 21 cities around England. While the coronation of Richard was going on, the Jewish community came forward to give him a gift. The Christians didn't like this - and riot started. Although the Jews did not live formally in a ghetto, they lived in close communities - and they burned.
Richard was furious. The Jews had a special relationship with the King - they were under his special protection. They enjoyed their own laws and rights under the king. But they paid a heavy price. Richard may or may not have been cross at the bigotry and violence - but mainly he was worried because the Jews were a major source of Income for him. He levied special taxes from them, and used them for credit.
So Richard sent stern notes to all the shires warning against any violence, and punished the offenders in London. But none of this prevented the worst of England's pogroms- in 1190 in York. Essentially, 150 Jews took refuge in Clifford's Tower in York. But the mob surrounded the castle, and most of the Jews decided to kill themselves and their families rather than be taken, with hideous echoes of Massada in 70 AD. The rest were offered safe conduct by trhe Christians if they came out - and then were slaughtered when they did. Oddly, the mob then moved on to burn all the Jews' documents - including the record of their debts.
The Jewish community was isolated by religion and race and profession, and were terribly vulnerable. For a while they at least had the king's protection - but when the kings had finally sucked them dry their last defence would be gone.
Between 1173 and 1185, Henry was on top of his game. He had become the elder statesman of Christendom, courted even by the Emperor of Byzantium. But while Henry was the equal of any monarch, his achilles heel was his very own family. In 1173-4 he was faced by a revolt by his wife, children and many of his leading barons. 1183 to his death in 1189 were years where Henry was increasingly beset by his enemies until at the age of 56 he died, faced with the treachery and disloyalty of his family.
Click and play: 43 The Greatest of all Monarchs
Download podcast 43 The Greatest of all Monarchs
Henry the Young King slipped away from his father's side at Chinon and fled to Louis in Paris. Louis at once recognised him as the rightful king. Eleanor and her teenage sons, Richard and Geoffrey also declared for the young Henry, and rode to Paris to join him. Barons across the empire rose in revolt against Henry's firm control; in Britain, the Earls of Chester, Leicester, Derby and Norfolk were joined by William the Lion of Scotland.
All were outdone by Henry's speed, his small but effective hardened army of mercenaries, and the support from his royal officials such as Richard de Lucy, Justiciar of England. By August 1174, Henry had subdued the English barons and chased away a humiliated Louis from the walls of Rouen.
You can pick up the main picture from the map here, or go to this website which has great maps of the war in England.
At the Treaty of Montlouis, Henry was not vindictive; we tried to solve the problems. Henry the Young King was given a pension to maintain himself; Geoffrey given Brittany and Richard Aquitaine. But Eleanor was to remain in prison for 10 years. William the Lion had to accept Scotland back as a fief of the English Crown - just like an English Earl.
One of the reasons Henry was so successful was that
unlike the rebels he had an effective siege train. And one of the reasons for this was the Trebuchet, which comes into regular use at this time. The trebuchet, as opposed to the less powerful Mangonel, used a counterweight to generate it's energy rather than torsion. And of course Henry had a team of experts to help him use the technology effectively.
In 1180 Phillip II Augustus came the throne of France. His 43 year reign was to transform the map of France. Phillip was helped and supported by Henry during his early years - but Phillip had no intention of returning the favour, and schemed for Henry's downfall, exploiting the divisions among Henry's sons. In 1182 Henry the Young King died, and in 1186 Geoffrey died. The person who bears the most to blame for Henry's final defeat was Richard, who conspired with Philip and joined in attacks down the Loire in 1188.
Henry simply refused to fight back. Tired, ill and feverish, Phillip dictated terms to Henry near Chinon. Ill though he was, Henry was furious with his son he whispered in Richard's ear ‘May the Lord spare me until I have taken vengeance on you’.
What finished Henry was the news, smugly delivered by Phillip, that his favourite son, John, had joined the revolt against him . Henry died at the age of 56 on 6th July 1189. He had reigned for 34 years and was buried at Fontevraud.
So here are two completely unconnected subjects then! Henry is responsible for reforms to the process of English justice that had a long lasting impact on English Justice - including the development of Common law and the Jury system. OK, so he wasn't thinking about the long term futuire, all he wanted to do was to bring more royal revenue in, and more quickly; but none the less, a long term impact he had. The events of his reign would also have a long term impact on Irish politics and society. in 1169. Richard 'Strongbow' FitzGilbert arrived on the coast of Ireland with the Gaelic king of Leinster, and the Anglo Norman invasion was on.
Click and play: 42 English Justice and Norman Ireland
Download 42 English Justice and Norman Ireland
The Irish political structure in the early 12th Century was composed of a number of Kingdoms. Kingship was based on the Celtic tribal tradition of fealty, and the kings competed for the political supremacy in the form of the High King. Added to that were the areas that had been invaded and ruled by the Norweigians, which now consisted of 5 towns, including Dublin.
In addition to the secular authority of the crown, Irish society was governed by the Brehon, who interpreted a complex system of customary law, and the the church - in the form of the Abbots of the major monasteries. The Papacy strongly disapproved of the Irish church, whose custom and practice were not in line with the Gregorian reforms.
In the mid 11th Century, a struggle for supremacy arose between Rory O'Connor of Connaught and Dermot MacMurroch of Leinster and their respective allies. When Dermot lost out, he sought out Henry in Aquitaine in 1166 and asked for help. Henry didn't have the time - but he allowed Dermot to look for men in England to help him.
Dermot found Richard FitzGilbert, Earl of Pembroke and Striguil, head of the De Clare family. He would be known to history as Richard Strongbow. In 1170, Strongbow landed near Wexford, and together they re-captured Dublin by 1171 and defeated the High King Rory O'Connor. At which point Henry arrived to make sure the English king wasn't cut out of the deal.
At the treaty of Windsor in 1175, the basic structure was set; Rory O'Connor was to rule Munster, Connaught, and Ulster, giving fealty to Henry. The English crown was to rule Leinster, the towns and Meath directly through a Justiciar. It sounded logical but was soon blown apart by Norman aggression in 1177 in Munster and East Ulster that set up further Anglo Irish lordships. Henry had no intention of creating a new empire in Ireland; but the effect of his reign was to set up a partition of Ireland and struggle for control that would have an impact for many centuries.
Henry's reforms had a massive impact on Justice. It's true to say that one of his main motivations was to increase the profits the crown made from justice, but he also believed in greater efficiency and consistency. The biggest impact of the great assizes of Clarendon (1166) and Northampton (1176) were:
If you want to see the text of the Assize of Clarendon just click here
The 1160's. A time of consolidation of the Angevin Empire, still ruled by a dynamic, young and aggressive Henry. But mainly remembered for the start of the struggle between church and state - or more accurately, the struggle between Henry and Thomas Becket. We start that well trodden paths, with a bit about 12th Education and Brittany thrown in for good measure.
Gilbert and Matilda Becket were Normans, who came to London to make their fortunes. Gilbert at first suceeded handsomely, being able to afford a grand house between ironmongers Street and Old Jewry. Young Thomas was given an academic education, but according to all it was the physical life that appealed to him as a young man. He hunted and hawked at the estates of Roger L'aigle, and he loved all forms of sports.
Gilbert's business started to struggle, so Thomas would have to earn his keep. After a stint in the household of a family friend, Thomas was placed int eh household of Theobald of Bec, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This was something of a coup, and Thomas made the most of it, rising to become an Archdeacon. Then, Theobald decided he needed a placeman in the houshold of the king; so when the Chancellorship of England came up, Theobald went and spoke to the king
Henry and Thomas got on like a house on fire by all accounts - giggling and playing like children, Thomas kept a magnificant household, dressed in the grandest of clothes, advocated the most aggressive of foreign adventures - and generally just seemed to be a man of the material rather than spiritual world.
But oh dear, when he put on the robes of the Archbishop he also donned the hairshirt. His appointment was not well received by the Bishops, who knew full well they were getting Henry's man. So Thomas set out to prove his independence, by opposing the king at every turn. It came to a head at Westminister when Thomas led the Bishops in opposing an unconditional oath to support the customs of the realm. Henry was livid.
Henry wanted to clarity about process of justice and the relationship between church and state. The Consitutions were meant to do this - a writing down of the English customs. He also wanted to push Thomas's nose in it, by forcing him to submit. Thomas and the English bishops were subjected to 3 days of abuse and pressure from Henry and the lay barons, but they stood up to it. Then Thomas bottled it, and signed them - leaving his bishops leaderless,
But, on the road outside, Thomas recanted. I suspect he only signed the thing to get out of Clarendon. Henry was now out to get rid of his Archbishop.
You can download the Constitutions of Clarendon below. I have put some notes into the text for explanation.
Download The Constitutions of Clarendon
School: was quite common, but revolved often around there being a local priest or monastery with a passion to provide the school. The curriculum was focussed on the acquisition of Latin as it's main aim
University: from 1096, Oxford is clearly one of the leading centres of higher education in England. But Universities as we think of them don't yet exist; what we have is towns with a concentration of Masters. The basic curriculum is the trivium, i.e. grammar, logic and rhetoric, and the quadrivium, i.e. arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. You could keep going and get into law, theology or medicine.
Bear in mind at all times that Henry, while being a Good King, was a tyrant. Still, he was a tyrant who ran a mean administrative system for the time. This week, the nature of the Angevin empire, how it was ruled, and a bit about travel and economy.
Click and play podcast: 39 Ruling the Angevin Empire
Download podcast 39 Ruling the Angevin Empire
We are blessed with many descriptions of Henry, and many excellent chroniclers for the period. Here's just one of those descriptions, from a man called Peter of Blois. Peter himself is an interesting character; he probably wrote some of the latin seuqneces that are used in Carl Orf's fantastic 'Carmins Brana'. He serves as a diplomat and secretary under William Rufus, Henry II and Eleanor, and died in 1211. The description is a long one, so I have saved it as a PDF here.
Download Peter of Blois on Henry II
Think of it in 4 bits:
The Anglo Norman State: Normandy and England. By and large loyal to Henry, well administered. Key flash point along the river Seine, with French and Norman Vexin being 'badlands' between the French and Norman monarchies.
Anjou: Traditional homeland of the Angevins, and again very loyal to Henry. Three countries, Anjou, Main and Touraine. The big castles along the Loire - Tours, Chinon - are another flash point.
Brittany: Claimed by Henry as an overlord, and William the Conqueror and his sons had also. But this is not without dispute and engages Henry in frequent trouble.
Aquitaine: A vast inheritance, loyal to Eleanor but only if she leaves them alone to to their thing. Very suspicious of the Angevins in their attempt to impose some order on them. And there are plenty of internal arguments going on between the various counts and families. Key flash point is the county of Berry, which had a critical confluence of roads and which was disputed between the Franch and Angevin kings.
Work horse of the early medieval carrying trade. The Cog replaced the existing Viking style ships during the 12th Century. It's advantages were the stern rudder; the flat bottom which allowed easy loading at low tide; and the high sides which made it easier to defend from pirates. Plus, crucially, it had a greater carrying capacity. The Cog was used for war and trade.
Geniuses, devils, spoilt brats, villains, heroes; war, sex, violence, bravery, treachery, peace, reform... the Angevins that founded the Plantagenet dynasty have it all, in spades. Not so much history, as soap opera. This week we kick things off with the arrival of Henry II and Eleanor on the English throne.
38 Born of the Devil - The Angevins
Download 38 Born of the Devil - The Angevins
In 1152, Henry of Anjou and Eleanor of Aquitaine married at the Cathedral of St
Peter in Poitiers. The church you see there is not the one - Henry started a new church in 1162.
Eleanor of Aquitaine split opinion across Christendom. One half of them saw the queen of culture and sophistication ; the other saw her as irresponsible, wild and undisciplined. Gervase of Canterbury described her as 'an exceedingly shrewd woman... but fickle'. So maybe both sides were right.
Eleanor was married to Louis VII of France in 1137. Louis was wild for her, but he was something of an odd fish. Nice enough you understand, but very affected by the burning by his troops of a church full of women and children - which isn't so very odd. But as he had his head shaved to make him look like a monk and became increasingly devout, Eleanor began to tire. She behaved badly on crusade - taking a gaggle of noble ladies and then suspected of having an affair with her uncle. Plus, the ultimate crime, she only gave Louis 2 girls as children. Louis needed a male heir and to his pain and distress had the marriage annulled by the Pope.
8 weeks later she was married to Henry. She met him in Paris once; she needed a protector to keep all those eager suitors away from her door; and if you were going to jump ship from the King of France and stay at the same level, your options were limited anyway.
The marriage transformed the political map. In 1150, Louis was the dominant power in western europe. Look at the map here based on the situation after the marriage. Add back all the lands of Aquitaine to the French lands - i.e. everything south of Anjou and Tourraine except Toulouse and you'll see what I mean.
Henry was crowned king of England in 1154. He then spent the first few years of his life establishing his new kingdom. This meant this thing really:
Henry and Louis tried to play nice, and Henry's eldest son Henry was betrothed to Marguerite, daughter of Louis. Oh, Henry was 3, Marguerite 6 months old. The dowry was significant - the all-important Vexin, key to Normandy, given away by Geoffrey Plantagenet. But Louis wasn't worried - hey, it was years away. But Henry tricked him - in 1160 he had the Pope allow him to go ahead with the marriage, and took the castles back. Now Henry's empire looked secure and complete.
Lot's of rather formless material is the super-summary. Women, long dresses down to the floor, hung from the shoulders, lots of sashes and ties to keep it all together. Hanky (wimple rather) on the head. Blokes, very much the same - soft leather slipper, long tunic covering everything up. Plus fashions didn't change quickly in the way the y do today - so it'll take us some time before things get more exciting.
Medieval England thought of it's people in 3 estates - those who fight (nobles), those who pray (churchmen) and those who work (peasants). This week in the history of England we look at the life of the nobility, through the life of William the Marshal.
Click and play podcast: 35 12th century life - a Knights Tale
Download Podcast 35 12th century life - a Knights Tale
William the Marshal
William the Marshal started his career as penniless knight and ended it as one of the greatest magnates of England. This week we look at his career as a household knight, where he makes his fortune through the Tournament. If you wan to know more about William the Marshal, you could go to this website about his life.
Early Life
We first see William lying in the sling of a catapult in front of his father's castle. with King Stephen threatening to turn him into jam unless John Marshal surrenders his castle. John refused, and Stephen was too nice to carry out the deed. We next see William in the mesnie, or household, of the Chamberlain of Normandy, William Tancarville, as a squire, where he stayed until asked to move on probably around the age of 20.
William was a younger son; so he had to find a way to make his fortune. He didn't have 2 beans to rub together, but had no desire to hang around his brother's castle as a 'hearth brother' - useless and impotent. So he appealed to Patrick Earl of Salisbury, his uncle, and got a job in his household.
The big break
Patrick had to accompany Eleanor of Aquitaine to Poitou. They were ambushed by the Lusignan brothers, and it was William's courage and tenacity that gave Eleanor time to escape. Patrick was killed, and William captured. But Eleanor must have seen his heroism, and ransomed him, and gave him a job. Then, even better, she gave him a job in the household of Henry, the Young King, son of Henry IInd.
Henry the Young King
Although he was a rebellious pain in the royal backside, as were most of the Angevins, Henry had a glowing reputation at the time for his good looks and chivalry. He was a big fan of the Tournament, and William the Marshal became his closest friend and almost a team manager. The Tournament was the making of William Marshal. He reckoned to have captured over 500 knights, and toured all over France taking part. He even had a partnership with a Flemish mate, Roger de Gaugy who worked with him in tournaments, and the kitchen clerk, Wigain, who kept the score and sold off the proceeds. The tournament turned William into a poor household knight at the edge of things to the confidente of the heir to the throne and relatively comfortable financially.
The 12th Century Tournament
This image comes from a 14th Century document, but it's still relevant since it shows the main event of the 12th Century tournament, the melee. 2 large groups of heavily mailed men charge at each other on horses and try to capture each other for the ransom. The audience cheers them on and picks it's favourites.
The tournament would be thrown by a lord, who would set up a tournament village on the edge of a town. The lists would be created round the edge - where each combatant's squire would keep 3 extra lances. Hired mercenaries would protect a roped off safe area called the recet, where frightened or wounded knights could cower.
A bugle would sound, and both sides would charge at each other. This was the melee. The event could go on all day. Philip of Flanders was notorious for tipping up late and joining in when everyone else was tired, and sweep up loads of captures. William and Henry used a variation of the same trick - they would be there from the start, but would hold back from the shock of the first charge, and so keep themselves relatively fresh.
At this stage the Joust was a relatively small component of the tournament. It was allowed - often the start of the melee was delayed while the younger knights were allowed to joust with each other to win a bit of early glory, before the more experienced knights took them to the cleaners later on.
In the12th Century, the roots of the Tournament were still strongly based in the military training of young knights, and had not become a defining characteristic of a knight. Henry II banned the tournament on his English land. But by 14th Century they would become increasingly elaborate and closely linked to the ideals of the perfect knight.
1141 was a turbulent year in England's history. The Civil war had reached an early deadlock, dramatically broken by the capture of the king at the Battle of Lincoln, and the defeat of the Empress at Winchester.
33 Anarchy II - Matilda's big chance
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Ranulf of Chester defects to the Empress
Stephen had serious hacked Ranulf off by giving Carlisle to David King of Scots. He'd granted Lincoln in compensation, but demanded a Royal garrison. Plus, Stephen had built up the power of the Beaumonts, just as a counter- weight to any defection from Ranulf. So in 1141, Ranulf seized Lincoln, and joined the Empress.
The defection made a big change to the Angevin's fortunes - in reality they'd been very disappointed by the number of Barons that had joined their cause. Ranulf gave them a vast block of land in the North West.
The Battle of Lincoln, 2nd February 1141
Lincoln is the only straightforward pitched battle of the Anarchy. And if Stephen had more of a brain there wouldn't have been any battles at all. The Angevin party, accompanied by a large contigent of Welsh with Ranulf, was probably considerably larger than Stephen's army. He should have withdrawn. But maybe spurred on by the memory of his father's disgrace, he decided to stay and fight. Despite some early success as the royal cavalry routed the Welsh on the wings, the Angevin counter attack drove the king's supporters from the field. Still Stephen refused to fly, was surrounded and after figjhting bravely was over whlemed and captured.
Matilda Fluffs it.
This was Matilda's big chance. Most barons accept that she's now in control, Henry of Blois comes over to her side, and Winchester opens the treasury to her. But she fails to win over London, and generally alienates everyone she can find. London rises up in fury, and throws her out. She is forced to flee without even having time to finish supper.
The Rout of Winchester
Henry of Blois again transfers his allegiance, back to Stephen, and besieges the Empress's castle at Winchester. And when the Empress comes down with her army to get it back, Queen Matilda and William of Ypres bring Stephen's army down and trap the Empress. Things get desperate. The Empress breaks out, but Robert of Gloucester is not so lucky, and is captured. So at the end of 1141, Stephen is released from captivity in exchange for Robert, and the game is back on.
'...they said openly that christ and his saints slept'. This stunning phrase gives us an image of devastation hat led to the period being called 'The Anarchy'. In this episode, we look at how the Stephen came to power and how the whole thing started.
Click and play podcast: 32 When God and his Saints slept
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Stephen seizes the throne
Henry had made everyone swear allegiance to Empress Matilda. But clearly everyone hand their fingers crossed behind their backs at the time, because Stephen really doesn't find it that hard to take the throne. Basically, no one wanted a woman on the throne, and no-one wanted to have anything to do with the Empress's husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of the traditional enemy Anjou. And anyway, the Empress is too busy invading Southern Normandy to claim the throne.
So Stephen was crowned by The Archbishop of Canterbury in December 1135. Meanwhile, the Norman Barons firstly asked Stephen's brother Theobald to be Duke - and then opt for Stephen when they hear that he's seized the throne in England.
The Early Years
The first few years are actually a good deal smoother than they were for Henry and Rufus. Stephen bases his power on alliance with the Beaumont family, Robert of Leicester and Waleran of Meulan, and removes three bishops who he fears are plotting against him.
But Stephen fails to bind two key men to him - Robert of Gloucester and David, King of Scots. And in 1139, things start going wrong. Robert and David declare for Empress Matilda. Geoffrey invades Normandy.
The Battle of the Standard, 1138
Fought outside Northallerton, David King of Scots and 26,000 men invaded England to make Northumbria Scottish and advance the cause of the Empress Matilda. After a victory at Clitheroe, David was faced by an English Army, grouped around a hill, on top of which sat the English Standard. Most of the English knights dismounted and faced the Scots in a mixed line of knights and Longbowmen. The Galweigan charge was broken by the archers, and the resulting English counter attack was unstoppable. The resulting treaty of Durham in 1139 was generous to the Scots - but by this stage, Stephen needed a quiet northern border.
The trouble is, the treaty gives Carlisle to the Scots. The super-powerful Ranulf of Chester felt that belonged to him.
The Empress escapes from Arundel
Robert of Gloucester and Empress Matilda times their revolt poorly. By the time they arrived at Arundel, David had been defeated, and Matilda was trapped by Stephen in Arundel. But like an idiot, Stephen allows his brother Henry to talk him into letting Matilda go. Oh Please.
South West England becomes Angevin
Robert of Gloucester was joined by Miles of Gloucester, Reginald of Cornwall and Brian fitzCount, lord of Wallingford. Together, their power in the South West was formidable. With revolts by Nigel in Ely, and Dover castle held against the King, the battle lines were drawn.
Henry was a Norman king like any other - Normandy was in his blood. For 30 years, he controlled the diplomatic game to keep Normandy in the Empire. The one thing he couldn't control was the succession. When William the Atheling died in the disaster of the White Ship, William was left with a daughter - and no woman had ever been the English monarch.
Click and play Podcast: 31 Henry I - Normandy and the Succession
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Dramatis Personae - see the previous post here
The Struggle for Normandy: Round 1, 1109 - 1113
A bit chaotic. Louis VI started it off demanding Gisors. Henry's friend Theobald of Blois organised a distracting raid into Brie, Henry captured and imprisoned Robert of Belleme, and bought off Fulk of Anjou by promising his son in marriage to Fulk's daughter. Left on his own Louis gave in and made peace.
Round 2, 1115 - 1119, and the Battle of Bremule
This time Theobald started the trouble, by killing a friend of the Louis's. Henry had to come to Theobald's aid, and off it all went again. Fulk and Baldwin of Flanders also joined the fight against Henry. This time, a group of Norman nobles also joined in, and William Clito was declared Duke of Normandy. But again, they could make no real headway against the Norman castles. In 1119, Henry was defeated at the battle of Alencon by Fulk, but despite that things turn out well. Because Fulk wanted to go on crusade - and gave up his struggle, in return for Henry's promise observe the peace while he was away.
Louis meanwhile was defeated at the Battle of Bremule. 400 of Louis's household knights were defeated by 500 of Henry's, and William Clito and Louis fled back to France. William captured 140 knights - and ransomed those he could, and blinded (yes, blinded) the rest.
Interruption - The White Ship, 1120
The death of Henry's only son and heir in 1120 was a personal and nationbal tragedy. William Atheling died when his ship hit rocks off Barfleur. No one dared to tell Henry - until a young boy was brave enough to do the task, Henry fell to the ground, until being led away to his personal chambers.
Round 3, 1123-1124 and the Battle of Bourgtheroulde
Fulk stirred up trouble with Henry's Norman barons, in particular Waleran, Count of Meulan. Henry was furious - Waleran was of the Beaumont family, who had been showered with grants of land in reward for the loyalty of the father, Robert de Beaumont. Waleran was defeated by Henry's lieutenants - either Ralph of Bayeux or William of Tancarville - in another battle between household knights. Now for the next 10 years, Henry could relax a little more.
Henry's solution was radical - his daughter Matilda. He got his barons to swear alleigance to her as the next monarch in 1127. Then he went even further - marrying her to Geoffrey of Anjou in 1128. This was radical - the Normand and Angevins were fierce enemies. Despite further oath takings, more than a few would have suspected trouble.
Death
Henry died in 1135. He came home from hunting, ate too many lampreys, and so died one of England's most successful monarchs. Not necessarily the nicest, but an effective king and a reformer of justice and royal governance.
The fight with Robert gave Henry a great chance to replace the old conquest families with his own men, and particularly in the Welsh Marches. And this week we also do a catch up on what’s changed in warfare since Anglo Saxon times, and look at the situation that faced Henry in Normandy
Click and play podcast: 30 Henry I - Barons, Warfare and Wales
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Wales and England in the reign of Henry
Gruffydd ap Cynan of Gwynedd and Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of Powys, the princes of the Welsh kingdoms mainly held their own through the reign. In Southern Wales, the Norman marcher lords extended their control, while Gilbert fitz Richard conquered land in Ceredigion. Henry made sure that the old marcher lords were replaced by his men; the families of FitzOsbern and Montgomery had gone, replaced by the de Clares and Robert of Caen, the Earl of Gluocester.
The Marriage of Matilda
At the age of 7, Henry’s only legitimate daughter was betrothed to Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor. 5 years later in 1114 they were formally married. It was a brilliant and prestigious match for Henry of England.
The balance of power in northern France
Matilda’s marriage completed Henry’s series of defensive relationships. In the English corner were:
The Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V: to the east, embroiled in struggles with the Count of Flanders. The relationship delivered less than Henry might have hoped, but did help distract Louis VI of France until Henry V’s death in 1125.
Blois: to the south east of Normandy. Theobald of Blois needed English help to avoid being crushed by France to her north. And Theobald’s mother was Adela, Henry’s sister, so they were family. Theobald had 2 younger brothers; Stephen of Blois was heavily enriched with lands in England and married Matilda of Boulogne, the heiress to Boulogne. Then there was Henry of Blois, Abbot of Glastonbury from 1126 and Bishop of Winchester from 1129.
Brittany: To the south west, the Breton Count Conan III was a vassal of Henry’s
Ranged against Henry were:
Louis VI of France (the Fat) (1108 – 1137)
William Clito (1102-1128) son of Robert Curthose
Fulk V of Anjou: To the south Fulk also inherited Maine and refused to pay homage to Henry I in respect of Maine as was traditional. Mainly hostile to Normandy though a bit on-off. Fulk left for a crusade in 1119-1120, and then again in 1127. In 1129 he married Melisende of Jerusalem and became king of Jerusalem. His son Geoffrey would marry Henry’s daughter Matilda, and would be the father of Henry II, the first of the Angevin Kings of England.
Flanders: The history of Flanders and their attitude to Normandy is chequered, but is mainly hostile. Baldwin VII (1111-1119) was hostile; then Charles the Good (1119-1127) was less so, before being murdered while at prayer. Then William Clito became Count for 1 year (1127-8), before being succeeded by Thierry, who had no quarrel with Henry I.
Rufus fell out big time with Anselm, his Archbishop of Canterbury. Unusually for Medieval Man he was impious and irreverent. Meanwhile, the Welsh struggled for independence against Norman tyranny, and make a better fist of it than the English. This week in the History of England Podcast we get to 1100, the end of William Rufus's reign.
27 Hateful to his People and Odious to God
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Church and State
“Yesterday I hated him with great hatred, today I hate him with yet greater hatred and he can be certain that tomorrow and thereafter I shall hate him continually with ever fiercer and more bitter hatred"
Such are the words attributed to Rufus, talking about his Archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm. Thinking he was on his deathbed, William had forced Anselm to take the job, thrusting the ring onto his finger despite Anselm's objections. They say 'Marry at haste, repent at leisure', and the same might apply to choosing Archbishops. Top tip for you all out there choosing Archbishops.
In the end, Anselm fled into exile, and implored his Pope not to send him back to England; he did not return until Rufus was dead. At it's most fundamental, the argument was about the church's desire to have more independence from the state, in accordance with canon law but in stark contravention of English custom. It's the start of a long road.
Scotland
At the start of the reign, Malcolm Canmore was looking to move his border down from the Tweed to the Tyne (see the map here). Afterall, the inhabitants on Lothian, Cumbria and Northumbria were very much the same kind of people, both ethnically and linguistically. By the end of the reign, Malcolm had been killed by Robert Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, and Rufus had restored Malcolm's line in the face of a celtic backlash from Donald Bane.
It was Rufus also who definitively brought Cumbria into England. He expelled Dolfin, son of Gospatrick, built a castle at Carlisle, and brought English settlers in to cement the deal.
Wales
The Welsh borders were different - when you crossed the border the language and people changed. Up to 1094 the Normans looked as though they were going to take over Wales pretty much as they had England. The Welsh didn't help themselves with constant warfare between the Welsh Princedoms, but in the end they were made of sterner stuff than the English.
In 1093, Robert of Rhuddlan lost his head - it ended up stuck on a spike on a Welsh pirate ship. Then in 1094 a chronicler reported:
'In this year the Britons being unable to bear the tyranny and injustice of the French, threw off the rule of the French and they destroyed their castles in Gwynedd and inflicted slaughter upon them'.
Cadwgan ap Bleddyn and Gruffydd ap Cynan led the uprising that freed Credigion, Gwynedd, Powys and parts of Deheubarth. Gwynedd would become the centre of Welsh resistance for the next 200 years.
The revolt of 1094-1099 was the first serious setback for the Normans. Marcher lords such as Hugh of Chester and Phillip de Briouze viewed the Welsh kingdoms with predatory eyes, with conflict never far away.
The Death of Rufus
Famously, William Rufus died in the New Forest just like his older brother Richard. His companion Walter Tirel aimed at a stag and hit a king. William broke the shaft, but toppled forward and in so doing thrust the arrow deep into his lung. Brother Henry took one look, and legged it at full speed to Winchester, to claim the treasury and the Crown before Robert Curthose could return. walter had run for the continent. So it was left to a bloke called Purkis to load the King's body onto a cart and take it to Winchester for burial. Conspiracy theories abound - was this a plot by Henry to kill William and claim the throne ? I think not - I prefer the cock up theory of history by and large.
William Rufus was a flamboyant, red faced, pudgy and irreverant bloke, but none the less his father's favourite son. So Dad tipped him the wink and he left the death bed to take the throne of England from his older brother. And spent his reign trying to re-unite England and Normandy again.
26 William Rufus, Normandy and the First Crusade
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William Rufus
William's reign is dominated by 4 themes:
This episode we'll talk about the first two. And a bit about the First Crusade, for no good reason.
A brief guide to medieval taxation
Rufus and the first Chief Justiciar of England, Ranulph Flambard, used all the means at their disposal to raise money.
Norman kings steered a very fine line. Charge too much for all this stuff and you have a baronial revolt on your hands. William got away with it - but was always close to that line.
Getting Normandy back
Rufus first had to fight Robert Curthose off - which he successfully did in 1088. And from then on he was on the offensive. But despite campaigns in 1091 and 1094, he never really had Robert on the run. Until in 1096, Robert heard Pope Urban II's call to the Crusade. William loaned him £10,000, and had control of Normandy until Robert came back. Pretty soon, William had re-asserted Ducal control over the baronage that Robert had lost.
The First Crusade
The First Crusade affected England relatively lightly - though there are records of a fleet of ships that took an active part. But the largest part of the Crusade came from Northern France and Germany.
Alexios Comnenus was in fact probably pretty horrified when 35,000 hairy northerners turned up in Byzantium. And in fact, the Crusades did little for east-west relations. Alexios really fancied a load of gold to pay for mercenaries to regain lands for Byzantium. Instead, he ended up with 4 Frankish kingdoms in the Holy Land, who he understood less that he did the Turks.
The march to the Holy land took the Crusaders first to Nicea, which they regained for the Emperor. At Dorylaeum, the Sultan of Rhum got his taste of western knights, and his arrows simply bounced off their armour. So he stood aside and waved them through.
At Antioch, the Crusaders faced a challenge they looked like losing. Camped in front of walls they couldn't properly blockade, they boiled in the heat, without sufficient food, while a Muslim relief army approached. But sneakiness won the day, when they bribed a Turkish captain to let them in. They slaughtered the inhabitants, Muslim and Christian alike. Then, inspired by the Holy Lance found within the walls, they put the Muslim army to the sword.
By then many leaders had left - Stephen of Blois for example. Their original army of 35,000 was down to 12-15,000. But on they marched to Jeruslaem. Their chances looked slim. The Turks had denuded the land around of food, and poisoned the wells. Jerusalem was a massive fortress. Another army approached from Egypt. But despite the odds, the desperate Crusader assault worked, and on 13th July 1099 Jerusalem was in their hands. The Crusaders celebrated with another orgy of destruction and murder that was to prevent any chance of working with the local Muslim population. Baldwin was crowned the first King of Jerusalem.
The final stroke was the Battle of Ascalon, where again a Muslim army was defeated, and many Crusaders came on home. Among them was Robert Curthose. Robert had a good crusade, involved in all the major battles, and there was even a rumour that he was offered the crown.
The First Crusade was massively helped by Turkish divisions, and really shouldn't have had much chance of success. It established 4 rather unlikely western kingdoms in the Levant that were to be the focus of 8 more crusades until the final fall of Acre in 1291.
The last years of William the Conqueror's reign were mainly the meat and drink of the Norman King - beating off other feudal lords, keeping your nobles down, trying not to let your sons eat you. But plus there was, of course, the super-famous Domesday Book. This week at the History of England podcast we end the reign of the Conqueror.
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Family troubles
William had three sons that survived him - Robert, William and Henry. Robert cut up rough - he was bored, and wanted his authority now; he was worried that his Dad preferred William, and might cut him out. In 1079 his rebellions almost led to patricide, but Robert recognised his father at the last moment and drew back. Robert and his father were reconciled, and Robert was again recognised as the Co-Duke of Normandy. But in 1083 Robert took off again, and was not to be reconciled before William's death.
Domesday Book
A lot of ink has been spilt over Domesday book. So I won't spill a lot. Just to say, that Domesday was probably created because of:
Now you too can play around with Domesday! The PASE wesbite allows you to find out who owned your town in 1087. Be patient, it takes a bit of working out, but it's a superb website.
Death of a Conqueror
William burst in 1087 while attacking Mantes. He died at Caen, and then he burst again when they tried to squeeze him into his coffin. Before he went he gave Normandy to Robert, England to William Rufus, and £5,000 to Henry to buy himself a place of his own. So what to say about the man who brought my favourite English period to an end? It's impossible not to admire him isn't it? Certainly not a couch potatoe, anyway. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle again proves it's worth with a very good summary - so click here and look at the relevant entry. But here are a few snippets.
‘The King granted his lands on hard terms . . . the king let it go into the hands of the man who bid the most . . . nor cared how sinfully the reeve got it from poor men. They raised unjust tolls, and many other injustices they did which are hard to recount’
and not just that; ‘The king and the head men loved and loved too much the greed for gold and silver and cared not how sinfully it was obtained’.
On the other hand: ‘He was mild with good men who loved God and over all measure hard with men who spoke against his will.’ ... ‘Good peace he made in this land, so that a man of any account might fare over the kingdom with a bosom full of gold unmolested; and no man dared kill another, even if he had done much evil to him.’
Let me leave the last word to my guide and mentor in these years, Frank Barlow. I think he gets it right when he said:
‘ William never gives the impression of having been born out of the proper time. He was no barbarian leader. Neither was he a statesman. He had learned the art of government in the hardest school, so that a conquered country groaned under his rule but could not withhold a grudging admiration’
The Ango Saxons seem a very insular bunch - what was their view of the outside world, how much interaction did they have? A good deal more than we might suppose. Thanks to Thomas H for asking the question - and for the folk on Historum for helping me answer it.
24a Anglo Saxon England and the Outside world
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The summary is that Anglo Saxon England has a good deal of contact with the western European seaboard. And that its Kings had relationships as far afield as Rome and the Holy Roman Empire.
But it seems that they had relationships with the Islamic world too. This is a picture of an extraordinary coin - a coin issued by Offa of Mercia very late in the 8th Century for the Pope. It is a copy of an Islamic, Abbasid coin, with the inscription 'there is no god but allah alone’. Hopefully, the Pope couldn't read Arabic. And of course many English left England in 1066 to serve the Byzantine Emperor in the Varangian guard, to escape the Norman tyranny.
Here also is an 11th century Anglo Saxon map of the world. Louise C of the Historum Forum writes: 'A mappa mundi is a depiction of the world as a place of experiences, of human history, of notions and knowledge. It's more like an encyclopedia. It's certainly not - and was never intended to be - a chart to be followed by travellers.
More than likely, a mappa mundi would have been a conversation piece in a rich man's house. A fashionable - and expensive - ornament to prompt after-dinner discussion. For journeys people needed not maps but travel tineraries, and that is what they had.'
Once you get beyond Byzantium it's clear that even traders would have only hearsay to repeat. None the less, it's pretty clear that Anglo Saxon England was a good deal more connected than you might think.
Trade, and trade with the outside world
Trade was based around the local Burghs or Ports; Edward the Elder specifically ordered in his laws that all trade be done there - no doubt so that he could tax it. Trade would not always have been in coin; while English silver coins were relatively high quality, by no means everyone would have had access to coins, so trade in kind was often the way things were done.
And yet there would of course be lots of stuff not available in the neighbourhood, and Merchants took advantage of this. Merchants faced many obstacles; there was no credit - so all stock had to be bought up front. The roads were rubbish, so rivers were preferred where possible. If travelling by road, good protection was a must against the robbers and brigands.
Despite all of this, there is lots of evidence of trade throughout the period. By the 11th Century towns have grown; all numbers are very approximate, but London the biggest probably 10-12,000, York 8,000, Norwich and Lincoln 5,000, Thetford 4,000, Oxford 3,500. Coastal towns with a large amount of external trade - such as Ipswich and Southampton were probably about 1-1,500.
As to what exactly got traded with whom and in what quantity, the evidence is painfully slight. But here are a few things.
External trade
Good old Bede in the 8th Century talks about sending to Gaul for Glassmakers, and the Abbot of Monkwearmouth did the same in 756. There are over 300 glass items in graves from there period, which indicates considerable trade. Most glass came from the Northern Gaul or Rhineland, and there's a grave in Sussex with a vessel from the Eastern Mediterranean.
Swords also sometimes came from the Rhineland - Raedwald's sword at Sutton Hoo, for example. In the same burial, cowry shells, amethyst beads and bronze vessels from Coptic Egypt show similar evidence of widespread trade at this early point.
In the 8th Century, the quality of English coinage indicates strong external trade. Offa has a dispute with Charlemagne, and as a result Charlemagne temporarily banned English merchants from the ports of Northern Gaul, and Offa reciprocated. So clearly there's enough trade to make a ban painful. Later in the correspondance, Offa agreed to ensure that English woollen cloaks traded with France remained the same length - so we are exporting garments, then.
We know that trade with Scadninavia, Frisia and the Rhineland is strong throughout the period, from pottery items found in burials and quernstones. Frisian and Scandinavian traders were probably the biggest carriers of trade, but we do know that there were English carriers too - an 8th century charter exempts the Bishop of Worcester's two ships from duties, for example. And we now that the English had at least some share of trade with the Mediterranean. in 1027, Cnut negotiates hard with the Emperor and Pope to get a good deal for English traders.
What did England produce for home use and export?
The oldest and most obvious trade was in Slaves. It's not just the Vikings that raided England for slaves; the Anglo Saxons raided the celtish lands such as Wales and Cornwall and took slaves. Bristol was a centre for slave trading, as it was to be in it's later history, sending slaves to Ireland. William of Malmesbury wrote:
'You might well groan to see then long rows of young men and maidens whose beauty and youth might move the pity of the savage, bound together with cords, and brought to market to be sold.'
Slave trading was banned at the Council of Westminster in 1102. But it's clear that for the Anglo Saxons it would have been an important part of the their external trade.
The evidence that England was a wealthy trading nation is there in the vast gelds paid to the Danes, and in the continuingly high quality of the English coinage. But it's difficult to see more than glimpses of how that wealth was generated.
It took William the Conqueror a few more years until he felt safe from the English. But when the Revolt of the Earls collapsed in 1075, English revolution was over - and we are into the continual cycle of feudal rebellion. This week in the History of England we've also got a bit of church stuff, and the pain of trying to rule a cross channel empire.
Click and play podcast: 24 Revolt of the Earls
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Hereward the Wake
When I was at school we learnt that Hereward was a folk hero. We heard how he hid in the marshes of the Fens, and how he goaded and outwitted the stupid Normans. Sadly, the Historians then got their hands on it, found out the truth and told us- and it's a bit more prosaic.
However, Hereward did indeed maintain a rebellion in the Fens. His hideout was at Ely, which at the time was an island. You have to work quite hard to make this map work for you, but the darkest brown stuff is water, and Ely is the reddish spot in the middle.
Anyway, Hereward teamed up with Svein Estrithson for a while. Then Earls Edwin and Morcar broke free from William - Edwin was killed by his followers, but Morcar made it to Hereward. This made William look up a noticed. He came with his Army; he built a causeway across the fens to Ely. And Hereward ran for it, and away into legend.
The revolt of the Earls
The Earls concerned are Roger of Montomergy (Marcher lord, Welsh border) and Ralph de Gael, earl of East Anglia. They talked Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, into joining them - but he then got cold feet, and spilt the beans to William. He would have expected forgiveness - he didn't get any. He was slung into prison and next year had his head cut off. So died the last English Earl.
The revolt fell apart. Ralph de Gael was met and by Odo of Bayeux and he fled, leaving his wife to face the music. They both end up in their Breton lands at Dol, where William tries to capture them, but is fought off. Roger Montgomery is met by Bishop Wulfstan (1008-1095) and Walter de Lacy and he surrendered and was put in prison. So the English have made a choice - they'd rather a Norman king than anarchy.
Lords of the Marches
William normally gave land out in widely distributed holdings, scattered around the country. But along the borders he took a different approach - he created large consolidated land holdings. His aim was to create lords who had the strength and resources both to defend the borders against the Scots and Welsh; and also take the offensive.
Let me give you an examplke. These maps have been produced using the superb 'Propospography of Anglo Saxon England' (PASE for short) by the way - though any errors are entirely my idiocy. Anyway, first you have Odo of Bayeux. You can just about see that many of Odo's holdings are scattered throughout the Midlands; most of the manors would not adjoin. In Kent, it's slightly different. William saw the route to Normandy as being strategically important. So he gave Odo, as Earl of Kent, consolidated holdings, protecting the route home. The next is the Earl of Chester and then it's Roger of Montgomery. You can see how consolidated their land holdings are.
The strategy works very well in Wales, not quite so well initially in the North. But he does create a ghroup of remarkably powerful lords; he gives all his rights and powers, with the exception of trying men for treason. Effectively these men are mini kings. That will cause some problems for England in the future - but for the moment it's necessary.
1066 was a year that changed a lot of things - though not as much as you might think. 3 experienced war leaders fought for control of England - and we all know who won, so no need to worry about plot spoilers. The History of England podcast takes us up the coronation of William at Westminster Abbey, Christmas day 1066.
Click anbd play podcast: 22 1066 and Goodbye to all That
Download podcast 22 1066 and Goodbye to all That
Why William, Harold and Harold claimed the throne
Harold Godwinsson claimed the throne by an ancient elective principle. He was nominated by Edward the Confessor, and appointed king by the Witan. Lets hear it for the poor of the people! William the Bastard claimed the throne by hereditary right through his Great Aunt Emma of Normandy. Plus he said that Harold had sworn an oath to help his claim. Harold Hadradaa said that Magnus I of Norway and Harthacnut has agreed that whoever died last should get England, back in 1040. But when Harthacnur died first, Edward the Confessor took the throne instead.
What happened
I'm only going to do a simple coverage on the blog - There are literally a billion websites (well quite a few anyway) that will tell you all you want to know, if you want more information or want to read about it . The BBC's is comprehensive and straightforward - cleck here if you want to look at it. You can listen to Stanley Holloway's version of events at Hastings as well, on YouTube here. Or find out more about Fulford at a very dedicated website here.
So the main events . . .
The companions of William the Conqueror
There are 15 people who we are pretty sure were with William on his great adventure. Some of them gained massive rewards from their support. The nams we know are:
The Normans made a massive impact on Europe, not just England. They went on to establish a kingdom in Southern Italy, and lead the Crusades and the resulting state of Outremer. So the History of England looks at where they came from, with a brief history of Normandy before 1066.
Click and play podcast: 21 The Normans - a race unbridled
Download 21 The Normans - a race unbridled
Beginnings - Rollo (846-931) and the settlement of Normandy
Charles the Simple, the King of France, managed to defeat Rollo at Chartres, but realised that the Vikings would be back. So he granted Rollo the land of Normandy in 911, on the promise that Rollo would defend the coast and convert to Christianity. And by and large that's what Rollo did.
The settlement of Normandy was not heavy, and was focussed around the coast, as the map shows. Rollo and his successors encouraged the Vikings to go native. Within a hundred years, the Normans were as French as anyone.
William I Longsword (b. 893, Count of Normandy 931-942)
Rollo's son William had to fight to protect the new kingdom from the Kings of France who regreted their decision, and from jealous neighbours like the Counts of Flanders. In the end they got to him, when Arnulf of Flanders had William assasination in 942. But by that stage Normandy had grown from the gift of the Contentin and Avranches from Rudolph of France, and by William's mariage.
Richard I 'The Fearless' (b. 933, Duke of Normandy 942-996)
A minority was always a dangerous time, so when William's assasination left 10 year old as his heir there was bound to be trouble. Louis IVth of France took advantage, walked in and threw Richard in prison. But 3 years later Richard escaped and enlisted the help of Hugh Capet, the count of Paris and founder of the Capetian dynasty. Hugh helped Richard back to the Ducal throne and Richard never looked back. His reign saw the start of the development of the famous Norman heavy cavalry and reform of the church. New religious foundations sprang up and by the time Richard died, no one would have imagined a world without Normandy - which had not been the case at the start of the reign. Richard was also the first to call himself Duke - and make it stick.
Richard II ('the Good', 996-1026) , Richard III (1026-1027) and Robert the Devil (1027-1035)
Richard II built on the work of his father, fostering the development of the church and maintaining his alliance with the Capetians. And on his death, the succession seemed assured through his son Richard. But Richard died suspiciously quickly. Now early death was not unusual in those days, but tomgies will wag and Robert, his brother, was tringly suspected of fratricide. None the less, Robert took over, and set off to have fun and build his wealth by plundering the church. And while he played, his Barons helped themselves too - not just to church lands, but to Ducal powers as well. By the time the Pope stopped Robert's spree with the threat of excommunication, the damage was done, and his son would have to deal with the consequence of a very independent nobility. Perhaps by way of contrition, Robert went to the Holy Land on pilgrimmage 1034-5, where his ability to throw money around earned him the title of Robert the Magnificant. But he died on the way back.
William the Bastard (Duke, 1035 - 1087)
William was illegitimate and under age when his father died, so he had to contend with a disputed succession. The turning point came in 1047 with the battle of Val es Dune, when Henry of France helped his vassal William defeat his Barons. From then until the death of his rivals, Geoffry of Anjou and a disillusioned Henry of France, William continued to fight for his survival. But from 1060, William could finally go on the offensive, safe at home and ready to take on the invasion of England.
